Kill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee - 1789 Words

The 1960’s text To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is a classic novel in modern American literature. In the novel Lee addresses many key issues in our past society but many of those are still occurring today such as racism, inhumanity, violence, gender inequality and justice. The story is told through the eyes of a 6 year old girl, Scout Finch. Scout lives with her father, Atticus, a lawyer; her older brother Jem; and their Negro cook, Calpurnia. Lee uses Scout to express the story in a way that allows the reader to connect with the story. The audience becomes close to Scout. Her innocence, loyalty and forgiveness of the world’s injustices make her character endearing and easy to relate too. Lee uses Scout to view the text in a relatable way. This is an effective way to draw the reader to this novel. Lee was highly critical of racist attitudes in society and used the novel as a means to communicate her rejection of racist views. The distortion of justice seen in the conviction of Tom reflects the distortion that Lee saw in her society. Scout’s father takes on a case involving a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely accused of raping Bob Ewell’s daughter, Mayella. It was in fact Bob himself who raped Mayella and accused Tom. Despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence, Tom Robinson was sentenced to life in the Alabama State Penitentiary. He was shot dead by prison guards after an escape attempt. Tom was falsely convicted because of the town’s racistShow MoreRelatedKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1049 Words   |  5 PagesTo Kill a Mockingbird: How a Story could be based on True Events in Everyday LifeDaisy GaskinsCoastal Pines Technical Collegeâ€Æ'Harper Lee was born in Monroeville, Alabama. Her father was a former newspaper editor and proprie tor, who had served as a state senator and practiced as a lawyer in Monroeville. Also Finch was known as the maiden name of Lee’s mother. With that being said Harper Lee became a writer like her father, but she became a American writer, famous for her race relations novel â€Å"ToRead MoreTo Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee1000 Words   |  4 Pagesworld-wide recognition to the many faces of prejudice is an accomplishment of its own. Author Harper Lee has had the honor to accomplish just that through her novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, a moving and inspirational story about a young girl learning the difference between the good and the bad of the world. In the small town of Monroeville, Alabama, Nelle Harper Lee was born on April 28, 1926. Growing up, Harper Lee had three siblings: two sisters and an older brother. She and her siblings grew up modestlyRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee873 Words   |  4 PagesIn the book, To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee illustrates that â€Å"it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird† throughout the novel by writing innocent characters that have been harmed by evil. Tom Robinson’s persecution is a symbol for the death of a mockingbird. The hunters shooting the bird would in this case be the Maycomb County folk. Lee sets the time in the story in the early 1950s, when the Great Depression was going on and there was poverty everywhere. The mindset of people back then was that blackRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1290 Words   |  6 PagesHarper Lee published To Kill a Mockingbird during a rough period in American history, also known as the Civil Rights Movement. This plot dives into the social issues faced by African-Americans in the south, like Tom Robinson. Lee felt that the unfair treatment towards blacks were persistent, not coming to an end any time in the foreseeable future. This dark movement drove her to publish this novel hopeful that it would encourage the society to realize that t he harsh racism must stop. Lee effectivelyRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee963 Words   |  4 Pagesgrowing up, when older characters give advice to children or siblings.Growing up is used frequently in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Harper Lee uses the theme growing up in To Kill a Mockingbird to change characters opinion, develop characters through their world, and utilizes prejudice to reveal growing up. One major cause growing up is used in To Kill a Mockingbird is to represent a change of opinion. One part growing up was shown in is through the trial in part two of the novelRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1052 Words   |  5 PagesTo Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee takes place in Maycomb County, Alabama in the late 30s early 40s , after the great depression when poverty and unemployment were widespread throughout the United States. Why is the preconception of racism, discrimination, and antagonism so highly related to some of the characters in this book? People often have a preconceived idea or are biased about one’s decision to live, dress, or talk. Throughout To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee examines the preconceptionRead MoreHarper Lee and to Kill a Mockingbird931 Words   |  4 PagesHarper Lee and her Works Harper Lee knew first hand about the life in the south in the 1930s. She was born in Monroeville, Alabama in 1926 (Castleman 2). Harper Lee was described by one of her friends as Queen of the Tomboys (Castleman 3). Scout Finch, the main character of Lees Novel, To Kill a Mockinbird, was also a tomboy. Many aspects of To Kill a Mockingbird are autobiographical (Castleman 3). Harper Lees parents were Amasa Coleman Lee and Frances Finch Lee. She was the youngestRead MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1695 Words   |  7 PagesIn To Kill a Mockingbird Harper Lee presents as a ‘tired old town’ where the inhabitants have ‘nowhere to go’ it is set in the 1930s when prejudices and racism were at a peak. Lee uses Maycomb town to highlight prejudices, racism, poverty and social inequality. In chapter 2 Lee presents the town of Maycomb to be poverty stricken, emphasised through the characterisation of Walter Cunningham. When it is discovered he has no lunch on the first day of school, Scout tries to explain the situation to MissRead MoreKill A Mockingbird, By Harper Lee1197 Words   |  5 Pagessuch as crops, houses, and land, and money was awfully limited. These conflicts construct Harper Lee’s novel, To Kill a Mocking Bird. In To Kill a Mocking Bird, Lee establishes the concurrence of good and evil, meaning whether people are naturally good or naturally evil. Lee uses symbolism, characterization, and plot to portray the instinctive of good and evil. To Kill a Mocking Bird, a novel by Harper Lee takes place during the 1930s in the Southern United States. The protagonist, Scout Finch,Read MoreKill A Mockingbird By Harper Lee1876 Words   |  8 PagesThough Harper Lee only published two novels, her accomplishments are abundant. Throughout her career Lee claimed: the Presidential Medal of Freedom, Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, Goodreads Choice Awards Best Fiction, and Quill Award for Audio Book. Lee was also inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. This honor society is a huge accomplishment and is considered the highest recognition for artistic talent and accomplishment in the United States. Along with these accomplishments, her

Corporate Image Management Process †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Corporate Image Management Process. Answer: Introduction: The enterprise operating environment is characterised by beverage products that fit a wide segment of customers. This creates a wide customer base since the nature of the product is usable by the whole population. However, the customer base mostly consists of the youth and working people who mostly carry packed lunch. The culture in the enterprise is based on a people-driven culture that recognises diversity and abilities of employees that are linked to the business strategy and vision(Black, 2003). This leads to loyalty to the organization by observing a set of laid down quality management standards for achieving organizational objectives. Each understands the role that they play to the whole system and are guided by the business strategy. This leads to business values of efficiency, customer service, integrity, honesty and transparency which transform employee abilities to business outputs. Individualism, poor customer service and low standards are examples of bad values that the enterprise cannot allow. The mission of the enterprise is to be the best leader in the beverage industry through producing products that meet the needs of the population in a changing business environment. This focusses on developing key competitiveness to survive in a highly competitive business environment. The business goals of the enterprise revolve around increased efficiency to reduce business costs, better customer service to increase sales, employee training to achieve high competency levels and on overall increased margin from better business processes that meet the organizational goal. Since the enterprise aims at being a global leader in the beverage industry then its business goals revolve around capturing a bigger market share through the above strategies that lead to higher standards. Sample customer service policy: To meet the needs of customers through delivering their requests within the specified time without delays and give adequate early explanations in case of delays to increase customer satisfaction. This code ensures that the organization sets targets with the customer while management and employees work together around the clock to meet customer requests and demands. This calls for prioritising work objectives to ensure it is completed on time. The trickle down of the policy leads to setting of daily targets by each employee to meet the overall output that the business seeks to achieve. Fryer, Antony, Douglas (2007) suggest that continuous improvement focuses on making products better over time. As an employee I participated in the continuous improvement process through creating an environment that allows other employees to work better. First of all I discovered that the process is a step by step activity that is based on finding a rhythm that works for the organization and all employees. This led to building trust among my fellow employees for us to work together. Then the next process entailed being open to dialogue with my colleagues to determine the best strategies we can induce in the organisation to improve processes. then third step focussed on creating a workplace that accommodates everyone. Diversity is a strategic advantage that can lead to competitiveness through giving room for all employees. Lastly, determining what motivates other employees to ignite the innovation fire in them ensured that performance increased. This step used autonomy, mastery and p urpose to create a task force that is quality improvement oriented. In the organization I work, individual performance is managed through performance appraisal tool that sets key performance indicators for the employee and how they relate to the organization(White, 1995). Through the tool, I assisted the employee set annual targets that need to be achieved in appraisal form then worked on strategies to ensure the employee meets the targets. They were then reviewed on a quarterly basis to determine challenges faced by the employee and suggest possible ways to improve them. At the end of the year, I sat down with the employee to appraise the achievements and find out areas that have not been met with reasons from the employee. This forms the basis of targets for the following year. I coached an intern who had been recruited in the organization. The first encounter was a meeting where I sought to understand his background and set contractual agreements. The questions I asked were based on a semi-structured interview style to understand the needs, strengths and weaknesses then later set goals on what needs to be achieved. After this I provided key information on the expectations of the organization, roles and responsibilities and then performance assessment based on the agreed goals I positively influence teams through analysing the nature of the team to understand areas that I need to work on. Then I will set goals and develop strategies to achieve them paired with a reward for the whole team. Since the members work together, they will assign each other smaller tasks that are interrelated and connected to the whole process to increase participation an accountability. Every individual will account for the part they did and it contributed to whole project. To gain positive acceptance, I will act as the team leader through playing an oversight role in all the activities and responding to challenges facing the team. Informed decisions are based on existing facts and considering the best outcome that meets the needs of the team(Nowduri, 2012). The first step will entail gathering information through assessing existing literature and comparing with notes taken when working with teams. Then individuals will be allowed to give an overview of what they feel about the situation and allow them to propose solutions. The suggestions will be analysed together with existing facts to determine an alternative that satisfies the business need. The teams will then be assembled and informed of the decision and the reasons for the decision. Then the team will work together to develop plans for implementing the decision and means of measuring performance. The enterprise image can be improved through leadership, corporate culture and positioning. Leadership entails aligning business processes to organizational strategy to develop appeal to customers(Abrat, 1999). Corporate culture defines how employee and organizational processes are defined and how the values meet the demands of the customer and the market. Then positioning allows the organization to utilise its competencies and develop an appealing image to the customer. Positioning differentiates the enterprise from others based on the brand and key features that define its business processes and products. The three elements create an image that defines what the company offers. Personal and management performance standards define the nature of the individual within the organization. The first way is through leadership style that the manager uses, managers gain acceptance from subordinates through their leadership style that increases followership(Rausch, Sheta, Ayesh, 2013). The individual should borrow from different styles rather than using one method which may not be effective. Through combining several leadership styles, the individual achieves best performance standards by meeting employee needs. On the other hand, performance standards can be achieved through setting standards and targets that need to be achieved at a personal and organizational level. Then the individual should ensure that employee needs are met through understanding the challenges they face and developing strategies to improve them. References Abrat, R. (1999). A Mew Approach to the Corporate Image Management Process. Journal of Marketing Management, 5, 53-76. Black, R. J. (2003). Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success. Hoboken, New Jersey: Willey. Fryer, K. J., Antony, J., Douglas, A. (2007). Critical success factors of continuous improvement in the public sector: A literature review and some key findings. Total Quality Management, 19(5), 497517. Nowduri, S. (2012). Management information systems and business decision making: review, analysis, and recommendations. Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 3(2), 1-8. Rausch, P., Sheta, A., Ayesh, A. (2013). Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications. U.K : Springer Verlag. White, A. A. (1995). Managing for Performance. Windmill Street: Piatkus Books.

Legitimacy Crisis free essay sample

I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another’s work and pretend that it is one’s own. 2. I have used the â€Å"Harvard† convention for citation and referencing. Each contribution to, and quotation in, this essay/report/project from the work(s) of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. 3. This essay/report/project is my own work. 4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work. Signature: Jvanrooyn Word Count: 308 excluding in-text citations Jihad Van Rooyen. Introduction to Politics, Tutorial Group #11 12 March 2014 Assignment #3 Legitimacy Crisis Revolutions result in a ubiquitous change in society. This essay ascertains themes throwing legitimacy into crisis through an evaluation of the sources of the French, Russian and Iranian revolutions. As stipulated by Max Weber in his legitimacy crisis ideals, society functions on a moral relationship between the ruler and the ruled (Hague, Harrop Breslin, 1992:19). We will write a custom essay sample on Legitimacy Crisis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Non-acceptance by the ruled would result in a regime losing its legitimacy and pave way for a political break-down. This is emphasized by John Locke in the Social Contract, where he deemed that society has no moral obligation to the regime when the contract is breached (Spragens, 1997:34). Thus, legitimacy certifies political stability and must be lost before any revolution can transpire. The French Revolution was based on the constitutional and monetary crises, which lead to instability. Thus through the failure of the regime to meet demands, legitimacy was lost and a secular revolution followed (Hague, Harrop Breslin, 1992:72). Relative deprivation was an immediate by-factor, clearly evident through the revolts against the structural conditions, which ultimately abolished absolute monarchy in France (Hague, Harrop Breslin, 1992:74). Similarly to the French revolution, the Russian overthrowing of the old political system proved easier than consolidating power (Hague, Harrop Breslin, 1992:79), especially after both revolutions were influenced by the regime’s spending on warfare. Both revolutions involved peasants uprising, owing to hunger, poverty and social inequality. The Tsar was not able to meet the demands of the citizens and in so doing lost credibility. In contrast, Iran’s old regime had not been ravaged by warfare nor had it suffered monetary failure, prior to its revolution (Hague, Harrop Breslin, 1992:79). The revolution was a religious affair against the regime. Like the previous two revolutions, expectations amongst the people were not met by the regime. In conclusion, when a regime doesn’t fulfill its moral obligation to the people or if they do not meet the expectation of the citizens, relative deprivation could occur which could ultimately result in illegitimacy and a revolution.

Angelina Jolie essays

Angelina Jolie essays Imagine life through the eyes of Angelina Jolie. Abandoned at the age of one by her father, her mother was forced to give up her dream of acting to become a full time mom for Angelina and her brother, James Haven. Although Angelina and her father, Jon Voight, still kept in touch, their relationship was very distant and unloving. She claimed not to be able to respect a man who could leave his perfect family life for a career in acting. Being that both her mother, Marcheline Bertrand, and her father were in love with film making, and the theatre, she was forced into this business. Angelina began her career as an actress at the age of five, although her first official screen appearance wasnt until she was seven years old. Can you even imagine starting your future at the early age of five years? After this role she went on to perform in Hackers (where she met her ex-husband Johnny Lee Miller), FoxFire, and Cyborge 2. However she caught the publics eye with George Wallce (in which she won a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress). Follwing this she was awarded another Golden Globe, this time for Best Actress in the made for television film Gia. Next she began working on the film Pushing Tin. Angelina told People magazine I had so much fun working on this movie, everyone was high sprited and ready to produce a best seller. (Jolie, peoplemagazine. com, Angelina Jolie) Next came the most popular movies in the career of Jolie, Playing by Heart, Bone Collector, Girl, Interrupted (at which she was awarded best supporting actress), Gone in 60 seconds, and finally The Yes, Jolie, has a very lengthy list of star roles but her first real dream for the future was to become a funeral director. She told US Weekly: There's som ...

Kinetic Theory of Matter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Kinetic Theory of Matter - Essay Example The paper tells that the Kinetic theory of matter is a theory that describes states of matter.   There are three states of matter namely solids, liquids, and gases. This theory states that matter is composed of particles that are in constant motion. These particles are either atoms or molecules. The particles in solids cannot move to another location but they can only vibrate because they are closely held to each other. There is enough space in liquids and therefore the particles are free to move but they attract one another. In gases, there is enough free space since the particles are far apart. As more Kinetic energy is gained by the particles, the components of matter change their state; solids change into liquids and liquids change into gases. Kinetic energy is as a result of heating the particles thus making them move apart from one another. The Kinetic theory is based on the fact that when heated, the molecules quickly vibrate and some of it moves from the matter. The physica l states of matter can be explained by the kinetic theory. Heat is a form of energy that is being transferred from region to another. The energy transfer is as a result of thermal contact or thermal radiation and occurs at different temperatures of the systems. Nuclear reactions such as those that are responsible for the burning of the sun release heat. Insulators can also be used to trap heat for a limited time. Energy is transferred through three modes namely conduction, convection or radiation, depending on the medium through which it is being transferred.... It can either be forced or free convection. In radiation, there is no contact between the objects in which the heat transfer is taking place. The transfer takes place through electro-magnetic waves, and does not require a medium. Heat is measured in joules. Temperature Temperature is the measure of the amount of heat energy in a body and the capacity for heat transfer. It can also be defined as the measurement of the mean kinetic energy of molecules in a system. The apparatus that are commonly used in the measurement of temperature are the thermometer and calorimeter. The SI unit for measuring temperature is the centigrade (Celsius), although in physics the Kelvin scale is often used. Warmth or coldness can be felt from contact with an object and this describes the object’s temperature. Relationship between heat and temperature As mentioned earlier, heat is a form of energy that is being transferred from one region to another while temperature is the measure of the amount of h eat energy in a body and the capacity for heat transfer. Therefore, the amount of heat determines the temperature of a body or a region. An increase in heat energy increases the kinetic energy of molecules thus making them to move faster resulting to a rise in temperature. In addition, how fast or slow the molecules move is determined by the amount of heat energy they possess. There is a direct relationship between heat and temperature in that as the kinetic energy of molecules is increased, the temperature also increases. Differences between heat and temperatures Though the two concepts are closely related, there is a distinction between them. Temperature is the amount of inner energy of a system. On the other hand, heat is a measure of the transfer of energy from a system to

The impact of the CISG on international business transactions Essay

The impact of the CISG on international business transactions - Essay Example 1.2. Thesis statement Recent years have been proved to be challenging for financial markets all over the world due to a spread in the international business transactions as well as the risks behind it. Starting from this idea, and also the past customs in international trade, this paper proposes to analyze the impact of contracts for international sale of goods (CISG) on the international business transactions. 1.2. Literature Review According to Ferrari (2009) contracts for international sale of goods was a huge success. In his paper he has argued that it is one of the greatest legislative or governmental achievements in the process of harmonizing the classified commercial law. Within a short span of time a total of 70 countries became the member of CISG. A number of eminent scholars have highlighted the importance of CISG in the international arena. In order to cite an instance according to Fletcher (2009) the Contract for International Sale of Goods is one of the most successful a ttempts to harmonize the international trade. He further quoted that CISG project was a successor of the 2 substantive international sales agreements. The agreements were ‘Uniform Law on the Formation of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods’ and ‘Uniform Law for the International Sale of Goods’. It has to perform a number of functions. Some of them are highlighted below:- It administers the international sales agreements if both the associated parties are belong from the member countries. To manage the conflicts between the member countries with respect to international trade. It also tries to safeguard the private sovereignty of the member parties. Chapter 2 Building on the CISG 2.1. International... In general United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods is a necessary convention for the member countries that provide rules to administer the cross border sale of goods. It mainly seeks to lessen the problems of international trade pertaining to law. It is also a fact that whenever a cross border transaction takes place some form of disputes is bound to happen. Hence in order to reduce it and facilitate smother transaction process harmonization of international trade took place. This has also led to the formation of CSIG. It offered easier ways to carry out foreign trade when compared with the complex laws and bodies found in most of national rules and regulations. After the incorporation of CSIG the system of international trade witnessed drastically changes. There were hassle free transactions, and the process become easier. Apart from that it was also notices that the transaction cost got highly reduced thereby offer benefits to both the parties inv olved. Furthermore after its incorporation there were also large relaxations in the international trade law. Hence on the basis of the recoded data and reviewing the literatures about the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, it can be concluded that CSIG played an extremely important role in facilitating smoother international trade. Hence it has been able to impact positively on the international business transaction.

Functional Analysis of Behaviour Clinical and Ethical Issues

Functional Analysis of Behaviour Clinical and Ethical Issues Discuss the clinical and ethical issues involved in  conducting a Functional Analysis of behaviour when  working with a client with a learning disability. What  evidence is there that this is an effective approach? Word count: Contents (Jump to) Introduction A Holistic approach The case for employing the functional analysis of behaviour approach Difficulties with functional analysis Functional analysis in everyday clinical practice Case study using functional analysis Ethical issues relating to the functional analysis approach Combining different approaches Conclusion References Faced with challenging behaviours shown by people with learning disabilities, the psychologist must decide which analytical approach – behavioural, biophysical, ecological or psychodynamic – will best facilitate appropriate therapeutic interventions. A number of wide-ranging reviews of the available literature, together with meta-analyses of this area, indicate that interventions based on the behavioural approach offers the most effective way forward. The behavioural approach advocates that all behaviour is learned, and that behaviours are functions of the interplay between an individual and various factors within his/her environment In his meta-analysis, Didden (1996) concludes that there is â€Å"a convincing level of change in terms of reducing challenging behaviour through systematically applied behavioural approaches†, and that behavioural approaches are much more effective than, for example, medication. The behavioural approaches used to tackle difficult/challenging behaviour fall into three main categories: [RZ1]â€Å"Differential Reinforcement† involves what is essentially a reward system, whereby an individual is encouraged to exhibit appropriate, rather than challenging, behaviour. â€Å"Gentle Teaching† aims to minimise or eliminate problematic behaviour by creating an environment in which bonding, ; interdependence and mutual respect are paramount, thereby eliminating the need for challenging behaviour. The teaching of functionally equivalent responses involves firstly a â€Å"Functional Analysis† of a particular problematic behaviour, followed by the teaching of more appropriate behaviour, which serves the same function. When attempting to decide on an appropriate intervention strategy, there is a body of evidence to suggest that the last of these three approaches – the functional analysis – can, if conducted properly, provide an invaluable pointer as to what type of therapeutic intervention might be appropriate. This essay will explore the clinical advantages and disadvantages of using a functional analysis of behaviour when working with clients with learning disabilities, examining the research in this area (much of which indicates that this is a generally successful approach) and look at the ethical issues arising from this particular psychological approach. Definition: Learning Disability A report from the British Psychological Society (BPS 2004), on Clinical Practice Guidelines for interventions for people with learning disabilities and Severely Challenging Behaviour â€Å"states that  ,if an individual is to be reasonably regarded as having a â€Å"learning disability the individual’s intellectual and adaptive/social functions must both be significantly impaired; and the condition must have existed before the onset of adulthood. An extremely broad-ranging group of learning-disabled individuals fall within these parameters. Definition: Challenging Behaviour The following definition by Emerson et al (1988) is widely regarded as a sound working definition: â€Å"Severely challenging behaviour refers to behaviour of such an intensity, frequency or duration that the physical safety of the person or others is likely to be placed in serious jeopardy, or behaviour which is likely to seriously limit or delay access to and use of ordinary community facilities.† The nature of the â€Å"challenging behaviour† (the causes and functions of which can be many and diverse) itself has been described as â€Å"behaviour which: places the individual or others in physical danger; results in destruction of their immediate environment; causes at least an hour’s disruption; or behaviour which limits or delays access to ordinary community facilities† (Scottish Office, 1998). Challenging behaviours may involve verbal or physical aggression, self-harm behaviour, and other non-injurious (but nevertheless undesirable) behaviours. Challenging behaviour is generally understood to be triggered by the interaction between variables within individuals themselves (mood, health, etc.) and variables within their social and physical environment.[RZ2] Functional analysis are comprises various methods, all with the aim of establishing the link between antecedents, behaviour and its consequences. (Kazdin,1994) More specifically, functional analysis are is a tools to reveal reinforcing conditions[RZ4], I am translating from Norwegian)..established operations and triggers for problem behaviour. (Vold, 2005) This information is then used for customizing interventions and treatment for the person in question. This definition includes all systematic methods that examine the root cause(s) of a certain behaviour. These methods include interviews and standardised tools like MAS (Durand, 1990) and FAI (O’Neill et al, 1997), different methods of observations of the person in his/hers environment, likce â€Å"scatter plot† (Touchette et al, 1985) and ABC charts ( antecedent-behaviour-consequence ) charts. (Bijou et al, 1968) In addition, we there arehave the experimental methods, also called analogue conditions. These methods consists of the a systematiccally testing and manipulation of events (or other factors[RZ5]), which are thought to be associated with the occurrence of problem behavior. It is therefore a means of formally examining the relationship between specific events and the particular problematic/challenging behaviors of an individual in a specific environment. (Iawata, et al, ,1982) These methods complement each other, but by using one – or a combination of them the â€Å"functional analyst† aims to have a much clearer idea of the triggers of, and the purposes served by, a specific behaviour. It should also be pointed out that functional analysis can be used in either a clinical application or as a valuable research method (Vollmer and Smith, 1996). Furthermore, Vollmer and Smith concluded that functional analysis could be used to identify individuals with the specific behavioural functions[RZ6] required enabling psychologists to pursue specific avenues of research (while bearing in mind that functional analysis does not always yield conclusive results). Rather than simply looking at the functional analysis as a means of dealing with challenging behaviours, Groden and LeVasseur 111posit a more holistic approach, which takes into account â€Å"the dynamic relationship between the individual, his or her skills and the environment, including the stressors, in which the behaviour occurs.† A behavioural assessment method, which has stood the test of timeme, is detailed in Groden et al (1996).[RZ7] Using this method, the behavioural assessment data for each individual is obtained from a number of sources. The procedure not only involves including a functional analysis of the target behaviour, but also an ecological inventory, a Stress Survey Schedule, and reinforcement surveys. The information is then placed in an illustrated A-B-C format, with each illustration designed to match the individuals intellectual abilities and reinforcers. It depicts the preferred mode of behaviour, which the person with a learning disability can use in a specific problematic scenario. In the early years of the use of the functional analysis by psychologists working with people with learning disabilities who exhibited challenging behaviour, four key functions were identified: attentionattention- seeking, escape (task or social avoidance),; sensory reinforcement, and tangible events (Carr, 1994). Functional analysis can uncover new functional properties of problem behaviour, but it is also necessary to develop additional strategies to address the complexities of an individual’s normal (i.e. non-experimental) environment. One such approach is the hypothesis-driven model developed by Repp et al (1988), which is based on both direct observation and the analysis of antecedent and consequent events. In the seminal paper â€Å"Psychological interventions for severely challenging behaviours shown by people with learning disabilities – Clinical Practice Guidelines†, the British Psychological Society established step-by-step â€Å"gold standard† guidelines for those who wish to employ the functional analysis of behaviour approach. (BPS, 2004) Having gained the appropriate consent[RZ8], the process should commence with the Pre-assessment, (a term first employed by Toogood and Timlin (1996)), at which stage the psychologist engages in initial information gathering, with a view to honing the initial focus of the psychological assessment. At the Assessment stage, the assessor collects and then evaluates all appropriate information about the person with a learning disability, the environment (both social and physical) and the challenging behaviour exhibited by the individual. These steps should enable the psychologist to collect the information required to create a well-structured psychological assessment and an appropriate intervention strategy, and to establish a baseline, which will enable the psychologist to measure the success of any intervention. At the Formulation stage, the psychologist draws up a hypothesis about the nature of the specific behavioural problem(s), thereby providing a guide to subsequent clinical activity as well as establishing key evaluation criteria. It will also specify the target of any intervention. At the Intervention stage, the psychologist will endeavour to change the individual’s problematic behaviour in an appropriate manner, utilising both technical psychological expertise as well asnd the detailed information previously accumulated about the individual and his/her environment. At the Evaluation stage, the success/effectiveness of the intervention(s) will be weighed up and carefully considered. The process is finalised at the self-explanatory Feedback stage (from and to all interested parties, first and foremost the person with a learning disability). In the course of their study, Vollmer and Smith (1996) concluded that functional analysis has its limitations. Most importantly, some interventions derived from functional analysis can be difficult to carry out while still maintaining non-intrusive procedural integrity. Martin et al (1999) demonstrated that there can be problems in interpreting the data arising from functional analysis in an experimental context. For the purposes of their study, the validity of a functional analysis was investigated using three different data-interpretation methodologies (two previously utilised methods, and â€Å"criterion Z† created by the authors). They ultimately concluded that all three methods were equally unsatisfactory as a way of establishing the function of a particular behaviour. [RZ9] It should also be remembered (Freeman, Special Connections website). that challenging behaviour does not always have a specific function. It is possible,; instead, that â€Å"internal sensory feedback† is responsible for triggering an individual’s challenging behaviour. Such behaviours tend to occur when the person with a learning disability is alone, or arise in many quite different and contrasting social scenarios, and may be the result of internal, rather than external, reinforcers.[RZ10] Lack of agreement about function across different methods After carrying out a thorough functional analysis, a psychologist (or other practitioner) should be in a position to identify the cause-effect relationship between an environmental â€Å"trigger† and a specific behaviour. However, different approaches to functional analysis appear to give conflicting results. Toogood and Timlin (1996) looked at the three approaches to functional analysis described above and found a low level of agreement between each of the different approaches in relation to their understanding of the target behaviours’ functions. The importance of identifying idiosyncratic variables A very wide range of stimuli can trigger challenging behaviour. Because a wide range of unanticipated variables can come into play, certain some of which may appear to be apparently insignificant, but which are in factin fact key, these variables can may be overlooked during the initial assessment, thereby giving rise to misleading results. An important study by Carr et al (1997) underlined the necessity of identifying specific â€Å"idiosyncratic† (or unanticipated) variables. In this particular study, each of the three clients was autistic (and regarded, broadly speaking, as learning disabled) and had exhibited problem behaviours such as aggression, self-harm and vandalism. Interviews and direct observations indicated that these challenging behaviours might serve the functions of attention gaininggaining attention or escape. On subsequent and closer examination using Carr’s ABC, narrative protocol, however, it became apparent that specific â€Å"idiosyncratic† stimulus variables (or the absence thereof) had a major influence on the results of the functional analysis. In the final stage of the study, the specific idiosyncratic stimulus variables which had been observed in a naturalistic environmental context (small hand-held objects, and the presence of puzzles/magazines in the room) were manipulated[RZ11] in an experimental context (a room with a two-way mirror that facilitated the video-taping of the proceedings) with a view to establishing their effect on the outcome of the functional analysis. While this study generally endorsed the usefulness of the functional analysis approach, it underlined the importance of meticulous attention to detail to ensure the accurate identification of behavioural-stimulus variables which that were not immediately obvious. Failure to do so would have significantly altered the outcomes of functional analyses. The authors concluded that that tailored guidelines should be in place when it is suspected (because there is a discrepancy between information arising from interviews and actual observed behaviours; when different results occur in different locations; or if the results differ from day to day) that idiosyncratic stimuli may be significant triggers for the behaviours being studied, e.g. .because there is a discrepancy between information arising from interviews and actual observed behaviours, or when different results occur in different locations, or if the results differ from day to day. Taking into account the above-described difficulties, together with the fact that a thorough functional analysis is time consuming,. pPsychologists in everyday clinical work are faced with a number of challenges. Some of these are of ethical nature and will be discussed later, whilst others are more practical issues. It follows from the initial definition of functional analysis used in this essay that the term is applied for different procedures, each presenting both the practitioner and the client with different challenges and benefits. In addressing the fact that time limitations can often compromise attempts to complete a thorough functional analysis in its more experimental design, Wallace and Iwata (1999) examined the extent to which variations in session duration (5,10five, ten, and 15 minutes) affected the outcome of a functional analysis. Their findings led to the conclusion that brief sessions did not give less clarity than longer sessions. An important study by Derby et al (1992) provided a analysis of the success of brief functional analysis. This study presents a summary of the results of 79 cases which used functional assessment procedures in order to determine how often the brief functional assessment successfully identified the triggers of aberrant behaviour, and whether the treatments based on the assessment were effective. Given that only 90 minutes were generally allocated to outpatient evaluations in the instructions of interest to the authors, Derby et al adapted the functional analysis procedures described by Carr and Durand (1985) accordingly. They went on to publish a report summarising the results of 79 cases in an effort to establish whether functional assessments correctly identified the â€Å"specific maintaining conditions of aberrant behaviour†,† and if subsequent treatments were effective. In each of the 79 studies, clients were, under pre-specified conditions, evaluated by direct observation of behaviour. Of the 63% of the cases studied in which functional analysis correctly identified the function of aberrant behaviour, 77% resulted in effective treatment. This finding suggests that the abbreviated 90-minute functional assessment can in many cases successfully lead to successful treatments. These â€Å"short-cuts† should not, however, entirely replace the full-scale, thoroughly researched, non time-limited functional analysis, but can be viewed as a viable â€Å"second best† alternative when available time is limited. It should be noted that tThe ecological validity of functional analysis methodology has been questioned (Martin et al, 1999) as the assessments take place outside the natural environment where the problematic behaviour usually takes place. When relying upon informant-based and/or descriptive methods, other problems arise, and psychologists need to ask themselves questions about the informants’ capacities to record observations without traces of interpretation. For example, tThe fact that clients are being observed may well influence their behaviour and invalidate results. In an inpatient setting, the mere presence of an observer may change the ecological environment, which will affect all the clients’ behaviour, and the antecedents and/or triggers for the target behaviour will be increased or decreased, and the data may be invalidated. Carr and Durand (1985) have provided evidence that the functional analysis approach can give rise to effective intervention strategies. They posit that, broadly speaking, â€Å"challenging behaviour fulfils four main functions : These are (a) a means of gaining attention (b) an ‘â€Å"escape from demands’† (c) a ‘â€Å"tangible reinforcement’† and (d) a means of obtaining â€Å"sensory stimulation†. A form foofr self injuring behaviour , for instance, head banging , may well fit into one or more of these functions.. But the head banging doesn’t fails to tell us whether the person is doing it because of frustration, hallucinations, anger or a middle ear infection.[RZ12] It is widely recognised that people with learning disabilities often have limited verbal communication ability. Many may therefore rely on non-verbal means of expressing themselves, especially in regards to communicating emotions. As a whole, people with learning disability are more prone to suffer from mental illness, personality disorders, anxiety and depression than the rest of the population. But whatever function the challenging behaviour fulfils, it can be seen as a form of learned communication that previously has fulfilled the needs of the person with a learning disability. A person with a learning disability who gains a caregiver’s undivided attention (even if the caregiverr is angry or irritated) more readily by shouting than by talking politely will tend to conclude that the most efficient and effective way to get the carer’s attention is to engage in the aforementioned challenging behaviour. A self-injury by a person with a learning disability may result in a show of gratifying concern from a carer. This â€Å"positive† outcome may lead to repetition of the self-injurious behaviour. One or more problem behaviours can, in certain circumstances, serve the same function, and can occur in a chain of escalating seriousness (e.g. minor fiddling with a small object leading on to the violent hurling of a larger object, minor complaints leading to vicious abuse). Awareness of this can enable a caregiverr to intervene early in the â€Å"chain,†, thus minimising negative consequences (i.e. events which come directly after an instanc e of problematic behaviour (Albin et al, 1995). Caregivers should be careful not to simply assume that a consequence is regarded as a â€Å"punishment†, and should consider whether the supposed punishment decreases or in fact increases the undesirable behaviour. For example, iIn a setting such as a hospital for people with learning disabilities detained under the Mental Health Act, for example, consequences such as restraint or even seclusion may actually be increaseing the incidence of challenging behaviour, as the behaviour in question can provide a means of gratification. The following case study shows how a functional analysis was useful to show the likely presence of these factors at play with a woman with a learning disability detained under the Mental Health Act in a medium secure unit. Case study: The 25 year old woman had a dual diagnosis of learning disability and a mental illness.[RZ13] She was admitted to a mixed gender ward with both male and female staff. She was a very big and strong lady and her challenging behaviour, which took the form of attacks for no apparent reason, posed a threat both to staff and fellow patients. Prior to herBy admission, a pre – assessment and initial risk assessment had been carried out. This was followed up by an initial assessment, carried out by nursing staff who recorded theing frequency and severity of her challenging behaviour in an ABC chart, as well as monitoreding activities and situations the patient she seemed to enjoy. Her mental health symptoms were treated with the recommended drugs. The data collected showed up to four weeks without challenging behaviour that wasn’t easily deflated. On At occasion (during a one-to-two week period)s she could, however, during a one to two weeks period, display behaviour that at least once a day lead to necessary restraint by staff. The intervention put in place  included allocation of a specific health care worker that would initiate activities that the patient she liked doing and instruction to staff to redirect  her when she was becoming restless. Due to her lack of communication skills, key staff was trained in specific ways of communicating with her. After approximately six6 months there was a marked increased frequency in the incidents of challenging behavior as well as in the duration and violence involved. . Although the patient’sher communication skills had improved and her daily activities had been refined to suit her strengths and interests, her attacks became so viciously that seclusion became an unfortunate necessity at least three times a month, usually within the same week. As no new antecedents were detected, a functional analysis was carried out , which included the three main methods, was carried out: Nursing staff continued to observe her the patient continuously and filled in ABC charts. Records were taken of her sleeping pattern, food and drink intake and menstrual cycle (informant-based method). Any changes in the ward were recorded, i.e. new admissions, staff leaving and new staff appointed. Assistant psychologists observed her on the ward and recorded behaviour on during 5 five-minute s intervals (direct observation). The clinical psychologist, who also had participated in observations, analysed the data and drew up a hypothesis about the nature of the increased challenging behaviour. On this basis of this, variables in the patient’s environment were, one at athe time, changed and tested (experimental method). The data collection demonstrated that the incidents of challenging behaviour peaked at a certain time in her menstrual period, indicating a hormonal factor. This factor alone was not conclusive enough on its own to account for her behaviour. It was treated as a setting factor that increased the probability of incidents, when short-term triggers were also present. The observations also carried out highlighted that when restraint was necessary, male staff carried it out, due to the patient’s size and strength, mainly did this. When there wereith only female staff working inon the ward, there was a significant reduction in her attacks, provided that she was being kept occupied by staff to avoid boredom. The policy and procedures for seclusion made it mandatory for staff to remove clothing that she might use to hurt herself with. Although female staff always carried out removal of clothing, she was still being placed in restraints by male staff. Direct observations and staff reports suggested that the presence of male staff during this process escalated her behaviour. Most importantly, however, was the correlation between her challenging behaviour and the presence of a specific male member of the staff. Nursing reports showed that when he was off duty, the client’s challenging behaviour never reached the level when seclusion was necessary. Furthermore, observations showed that she was always happy to greet this member of staffstaff member when he arrived for work, and she frequently sought him out for help or company.[RZ14]. The interventions implemented were to move  the male member of staffstaff member to another ward for a period of time and to  stop male staff participation intervention in the restraint processrestraints. Guidelines were implemented to ensure that the patient she was dressed in clothes she could safely wear if seclusion was necessary. The cA contraceptive pill was prescribed in order to keep her hormone level in balance, and a program with intermittent positive reinforcement was developed to re-introduce a certain interaction with male staff.[RZ15] The intervention was successful insofar that heras the patient’s challenging behaviour decreased. It demonstrates the effectiveness of a functional analysis as well as the danger of interventions become too intrusive. But it also, it highlights many of the ethical challenges a practitioner might face when working with people with learning disability and challenging behaviour.[RZ16] Given that the vast majority of individuals with learning disabilities are highly vulnerable to abuse, neglect and exploitation, it is vital that an â€Å"ethical framework† exists, within which practitioners can operate when using the functional analysis approach. The practitioner must also ensure the following: that he/she operates within the law of the land at all times; the practitioner must endeavour to operate within the parameters imposed by the relevant professional association’s’ Code of Practice; must adhere to local standards and policies (e.g. those set by a particular Trust); and must operate (as far as possible, given the previous strictures) within his/her own personal set of ethics and principles. Consent As with any other assessment or intervention, the client or service-user must give his or her consent. People with learning disabilities encompass a broad range of abilities. Some will understand the implications of assessments and interventions and will be able to give their consent, whilst others are unable to do so. The latter group may have guardians to provide consent on their behalf. But most lay people tend to accept without much questioning that â€Å"the professionals know best.† . It is the